570 Biowissenschaften; Biologie
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In einem ersten Schritt wurden Feldbeobachtungen durchgeführt um die räumliche und zeitliche Habitatbindung von Kleinkrebsen und Mückenlarven zu erforschen. Larven der Mückenart Ae.vexans entwickelten sich synchron mit der Kleinkrebsordnung Cyclopoida innerhalb einer Woche nach Entstehung eines Gewässers. Larven der Mückenart Cx.pipiens besiedeln dieselben Gewässer wie Cladocera, wobei letztere zeitlich verzögert auftraten. Das zeitliche Auftreten der Arten wurde durch die Biotopstruktur beeinflusst. Schilfbiotope beschleunigten die Entwicklung von Kleinkrebsen, wohingegen Gewässer auf Wiesenflächen schneller von Mückenlarven besiedelt wurden. In einem zweiten Schritt wurde untersucht, auf welche Weise Mückenlarven von Kleinkrebsen beeinflusst werden. In einem Mikrokosmen-Experiment zeigte sich, dass Kleinkrebse sowohl die Eiablage der Mückenart Cx.pipiens vermindern als auch die Entwicklung der Mückenlarven beeinträchtigen. Artgemeinschaften mit hoher Artdiversität, bestehend aus verschiedenen räuberischen und filtrierenden Kleinkrebsen, reduzierten Mückenpopulationen effektiver als Artgemeinschaften mit geringer Artdiversität. Die Anwesenheit diverse Krebsgemeinschaften bewirkte zudem, dass Bti bereits in geringerer Dosierung einen Effekt erzielte und Cx.pipiens Larven längere Zeit benötigten, um ein Gewässer nach der Behandlung durch Bti wieder zu besiedeln. In einem letzten Schritt wurde der kombinierte Einsatz von Bti und Kleinkrebsen unter Freilandbedingungen erprobt. Die Kombination aus Bti und Kleinkrebsen reduzierte die Anzahl der Mückenlarven (Cx.pipiens) über den gesamten Beobachtungszeitraum hinweg. Die alleinige Ausbringung von Bti bewirkte nur eine kurzfristige Reduktion der Mückenlarve, während die Ausbringung von Kleinkrebsen keinen Effekt erzielte. Die Anwesenheit der Mückenlarven verhinderte eine ausreichende Vermehrung der Kleinkrebse, während im kombinierten Ansatz die Mückenlarven kurzzeitig durch das Bti eliminiert wurden, was die Entwicklung der eingesetzten Kleinkrebse begünstigte. Zusammenfassend konnte gezeigt werden, dass sowohl räuberische als auch filtrierende Kleinkrebse einen starken negativen Effekt auf Mückenlarven ausüben. Allerdings muss ein Zeitraum von ca. 2 Wochen überbrückt werden, bis sich eine ausreichend starke Artgemeinschaft aus Kleinkrebsen etabliert hat. Der Einsatz von Kleinkrebsen in Kombination mit dem Insektizid Bti erweist sich als vielversprechend und könnte in Zukunft dazu beitragen, Mücken effektiv und nachhaltig zu kontrollieren.
Due to their confinement to specific host plants or restricted habitat types, Auchenorrhyncha are suitable biological indicators to measure the quality of chalk grassland under different management practices for nature conservation. They can especially be used as a tool to assess the success of restoring chalk grassland on ex-arable land. One objective of this study was to identify the factors which most effectively conserve and enhance biological diversity of existing chalk grasslands or allow the creation of new areas of such species-rich grassland on ex-arable land. A second objective was to link Auchenorrhyncha communities to the different grassland communities occurring on chalk according to the NVC (National Vegetation Classification). Altogether 100 chalk grassland and arable reversion sites were sampled between 1998 and 2002. Some of the arable reversion sites had been under certain grazing or mowing regimes for up to ten years by 2002. Vegetation structure and composition were recorded, and Auchenorrhyncha were sampled three times during the summer of each year using a "vortis" suction sampler. Altogether 110 leafhopper species were recorded during the study. Two of the species, Kelisia occirrega and Psammotettix helvolus, although widespread within the area studied, had not previously been recognized as part of the British fauna. By displaying insect frequency and dominance as it is commonly done for vegetation communities, it was possible to classify preferential and differential species of distinct Auchenorrhyncha communities. The linking of the entomological data with vegetation communities defined by the NVC showed that different vegetation communities were reflected by distinct Auchenorrhyncha communities. Significant differences were observed down to the level of sub-communities. The data revealed a strong positive relationship between the diversity of leafhoppers species and the vegetation height. There was also a positive correlation between the species richness of Auchenorrhyncha and the diversity of plant species. In that context it is remarkable that there was no correlation between vegetation height and botanical diversity. There is a substantial decrease in Auchenorrhyncha species richness from unimproved grassland to improved grassland and arable reversion. The decline of typical chalk grassland and general dry grassland species is especially notable. Consequently, the number of stenotopic Auchenorrhyncha species which are confined to only a few habitat types, are drastically reduced with the improvement of chalk grassland. Improved grassland and arable reversion fields are almost exclusively inhabited by common habitat generalists. The decrease in typical chalk grassland plants due to improvement is mirrored in the decline of Auchenorrhyncha species, which rely monophagously or oligophagously on specific host plants. But even where suitable host plants re-colonize arable reversion sites quickly, there is a considerable delay before leafhoppers follow. That becomes especially obvious with polyphagous leafhoppers like Turrutus socialis or Mocydia crocea, which occur on improved grassland or arable reversion sites only in low frequency and abundance, despite wide appearance or even increased dominance of their host plants. These species can be considered as the most suitable indicators to measure success or failure of long term grassland restoration. A time period of ten years is not sufficient to restore species-rich invertebrate communities on grassland, even if the flora indicates an early success.
The genus Cheilolejeunea (Spruce) Schiffn. (Lejeuneaceae, Jungermanniopsida) is represented by 23 species in continental tropical Africa. The morphological characters such as features of the stem, leaf, lobule and perianth traditionally used to separate the taxa at both species and generic level have been found to be unstable. The species are variably ranked in several subgenera including Cheilolejeunea (Spruce) Schiffn., Euosmolejeunea Schiffn., Strepsilejeunea (Spruce) Schiffn. and Xenolejeunea Kachroo & Schust. Although the genus has never been monographed, there are a few regional taxonomic accounts for America, Australia and China. A comprehensive revision of Cheilolejeunea species is lacking in Africa where the existing studies are based on single subgenus and sub-regional flora or checklist compilations, which are sometimes without identification keys. This study revises the taxonomy of Cheilolejeunea and the closely allied genus Leucolejeunea A. Evans, in continental Africa based on morphological data analysed using phenetic and phylogenetic methods.
Genetische Populationsstruktur europäischer Hyalodaphnia-Arten: Monopolisierung versus Genfluss
(2012)
Die genetische Populationsstruktur von Arten wird von verschiedenen Faktoren beeinflusst, z.B. vom Reproduktionsmodus. Ein spezieller Reproduktionsmodus ist die zyklische Parthenogenese, eine Abwechslung von Phasen asexueller und sexueller Reproduktion. Die klonale Diversität von zyklisch parthenogenetischen Zooplanktonorganismen wird durch die Größe der Dauerstadienbank im Sediment beeinflusst, d.h. durch die Anzahl der sexuell produzierten Dauereier die sich im Sediment akkumulieren. Weiterhin verringert klonale Erosion, ausgelöst durch stochastische und selektive Prozesse, die Diversität über die Zeit. Da zyklisch parthenogenetische Zooplanktonorganismen neue Habitate effektiv monopolisieren können, wurden die Auswirkungen von Genfluss als vernachlässigbar angenommen. Unter Monopolisierung wird die schnelle Vergrößerung der Population verstanden, was zu einem Vorteil für die ersten Ankömmlinge führt (priority-Effekt). Durch lokale Anpassung und das Aufbauen einer Dauerstadienbank wird Genfluss effektiv entgegen gewirkt, da später ankommende Genotypen sich nicht in der Population etablieren können. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Evaluierung der Prozesse, die die populationsgenetische Struktur von zyklisch parthenogenetischen Zooplanktonorganismen beeinflussen, mit besonderem Fokus auf Monopolisierung und Genfluss. Als Organismen wurden Seenarten der Gattung Daphnia eingesetzt, für die zunächst 32 variable Mikrosatellitenmarker entwickelt wurden. Ein ausgewähltes Marker-Set von zwölf Mikrosatellitenmarkern wurde zusätzlich für die Art- und Hybriddetektion getestet. Mit diesem Marker-Set und einem zusätzlichen mitochondrialen DNA-Marker wurden Proben aus 44 europäischen Gewässern untersucht, die die Arten D. cucullata, D. galeata und D. longispina enthielten. Bei D. galeata sind viele Populationen durch eine geringe klonale Diversität charakterisiert, was darauf hindeutet, dass die Dauerstadienbank nur wenig zur klonalen Diversität beiträgt, wodurch die Effekte der klonalen Erosion sehr schnell detektiert werden. Die genetischen Muster zeigen weiterhin auf, dass rezente Expansion stattgefunden hat, die wahrscheinlich durch die anthropogene Veränderung limnischer Ökosysteme hervorgerufen und begünstigt wurde, wobei hier vor allem die Eutrophierung vieler europäischer Seen im Vordergrund steht. Bei D. longispina und D. cucullata wurde eine von D. galeata stark abweichende Populationsstruktur detektiert. Hohe genetische Differenzierung zwischen Populationen spricht für geringen Genfluss was im Einklang mit den Annahmen von Monopolisierung ist.
Weiterhin ist die klonale Diversität vieler Populationen sehr hoch und deutet somit einen großen Einfluss der Dauerstadienbank an, weshalb die Effekte der klonalen Erosion nicht oder nur gering detektiert wurden. Bei der Analyse der mitochondrialen DNA von D. longispina wurde ein Anstieg der Populationsgröße nach der letzten Eiszeit ermittelt, da die Entstehung vieler Gletscherseen, die ein ideales Habitat für D. longispina darstellen, zu einer Expansion dieser Art führte. Nicht nur die klonale Diversität der D. longispina-Populationen war hoch, sondern die genetische Diversität im Allgemeinen. Dies zeigt auf, dass während der Entstehung dieser Populationen Genfluss hoch gewesen sein muss. Um die Prozesse, die während der frühen Entwicklungsphase einer Population herrschen, besser beurteilen zu können, wurde eine experimentelle Studie durchgeführt, die den zeitlichen Vorteil von ankommenden Genotypen auf den Etablierungserfolg dieser Genotypen untersucht.
Es zeigte sich, dass früh ankommende Genotypen einen Vorteil in der Population haben. Bei ähnlicher Fitness war dieser Vorteil langfristig, aber Genotypen mit einer höheren Fitness dominierten die Population auf lange Sicht, unabhängig vom zeitlichen Vorteil den die einzelnen Genotypen zuvor hatten.rnZusammenfassend, die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen, dass zusätzlich zu den bisher untersuchten Prozessen (lokale Anpassung, klonale Erosion und die Größe der Dauerstadienbank) auch Genfluss die Populationsstruktur zyklisch parthenogenetischer Zooplanktonorganismen effektiv beeinflussen kann. Zum Einen, während der Entstehung von Population können mehrere Genotypen zum Aufbau beitragen. Zum Anderen, bei starken Veränderungen der Umweltfaktoren kann Genfluss stark auf die Populationsstruktur wirken.
Nandi forests (South and North Nandi forests) are situated in the Rift Valley Province of Kenya very close to Kakamega forest. From previous documents it has been seen that Kakamega and Nandi forests were connected to each other forming one big "U" shaped forest block till the beginnings of 1900s. Due to human pressures, currently there are three different forests form the previous one block forest. Although they were one forest, information on Nandi forests is very scanty when it is compared to that of Kakamega forest. The species composition and diversity as well as plant communities and population structure of Nandi forests have not been studied. Information is not available about the similarity status of South and North Nandi forests. Furthermore the natural regeneration potential (seedling bank) of these forests is not well studied and documented. Hence this study aims to fill these gaps.
In this study totally 76 quadrates (49 from South Nandi and 27 from North Nandi) were used to collect data. In the South Nandi forests 27 of the quadrates were laid in the better side of the forest (at Kobujoi) and the remaining 22 were in the heavily disturbed part of this forest (Bonjoge). The quadrates were arranged on transects that have one to one and half km which were parallel to the slope. The distance between the quadrates was 100 meter and transects are 500 m apart. The size of the main quadrate was 400 m2 (20 X 20 m) which also had five small plots (3 X 3 m) distributed on the four corners and in the center. Each woody plants (climbers, shrubs and trees) having more than one meter and greater than two centimeter diameter at breast height (dbh) were measured and recorded. Seedlings and herbaceous plants were sampled in the smaller plots. Individual plants were identified at species level and when it was not possible to identify in the field voucher specimen were prepared and latter identified at the East African Herbarium, National Museum of Kenya, and Nairobi. Clustering and ordination were performed using PC-ORD and CANOCO ecological softwares, respectively. For both clustering and ordination abundance data of the species was used. Shannon diversity index and evenness were computed using PC-ORD while similarity indices, Fisher alpha, rarefaction, species richness estimation (nonparametric species richness estimators) were conducted using EstimateS. Indicator species analysis was undertaken using PC-ORD. Basal area and height class distribution at forests level or site level (Bonjoge and Kobujoi) and diameter (dbh) class distribution for selected trees species were performed to evaluate population structure.
Furthermore importance value (IV) of woody plant species was calculated. SPSS version 16 was used to undertake both parametric (when data assume normal distribution) and nonparametric (when data are not assuming normal distribution) comparison of means, correlation and regression analysis.
In this study totally 321 vascular plant species comprising 92 families and 243 genera were identified in Nandi forests (both South and North Nandi forests). In South Nandi forest 253 plant species form 82 families and 201 genera were recorded while in North Nandi 181 species comprising 67 families and 155 genera were recorded. Jackknife second order estimators gave the highest species richness estimate for both South and North Nandi forests i.e. 284 and 209, respectively. In the case of highly disturbed and less disturbed parts of South Nandi forest 138 and 172 vascular plant species were recorded, respectively. Asteraceae, Rubiaceae and Euphorbiaceae are the top three species rich families of Nandi forests. In terms of different diversity measures (i.e. alpha and beta diversity, Fisher alpha, Shannon diversity and evenness indices) South Nandi is more diverse than North Nandi forest. Sörensen and Jaccard (classic) as well as their respective abundance based similarities showed that there is a low species similarity between South and Nandi forests. The cluster analysis resulted in three different plant communities and this result is supported by the ordination result.
South and North Nandi forest has inverted "J" height class distribution showing that larger proportion of woody plant individuals are found in the lower height classes. Similar pattern is observed when the diameters of all woody plants were considered together. However, different diameter class distributions (seven types) were identified when selected tree species were analyzed separately. It has been observed that the basal area of South Nandi forest is significantly lower than that of North Nandi forest (Mann-Whitney U =358, p < 0.001). Similarly Bonjoge has significantly lower basal area (t-value=3.77, p<0.01) than that of Kobujoi. Number of woody plat seedlings in South Nandi forest is significantly higher than that of North Nandi (Mann-Whitney U = 362.5, p<0.001). In the same way Bonjoge has significantly smaller number of ssedlings than Kobujoi (t-value 4.24, p<0.001). Most of species in both forests are able to resprout from stumps after physical damage; hence this helps the regeneration of the forests in addition to seedling banks. This study enables to fill some of the information gaps about Nandi forests especially of floristic composition, population structure, natural regeneration and human impacts on this ecosystem.
Non-Consumptive Effects of Spiders and Ants: Does Fear Matter in Terrestrial Interaction Webs?
(2014)
Die meisten Tiere haben natürliche Feinde. Neben dem Töten von Beute (Prädation), können Räuber auch die Physiologie, Morphologie und das Verhalten von Beutetieren beeinflussen. Spinnen sind eine ausgesprochen diverse und häufige Räubergruppe in terrestrischen Ökosystemen. Unsere Verhaltensexperimente haben gezeigt, dass nur wenige Insekten- und Spinnenarten das Verhalten in der Anwesenheit von Spinnengeruchstoffen ändern. Besonders Waldgrillen (Nemobius sylvestris) änderten ihr Verhalten aufgrund von Geruchsstoffen mehreren Spinnenarten. Dabei bewirkten Geruchstoffe von relativ größeren und häufigeren Spinnenarten stärkere Verhaltensänderungen.
Verhaltensänderungen unter Prädationsrisiko erhöhen die Überlebensrate von Beutetieren, sind aber oft mit Kosten verbunden. Grillen, die vorher schon mit Geruchstoffen der Listspinne (Pisaura mirabilis) konfrontiert wurden, konnten den Spinnen tatsächlich erfolgreicher entkommen. Während des Experiments haben Grillen unter Prädationsrisiko geringfügig mehr gefressen und weniger Gewicht verloren als Kontrollgrillen. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass Grillen durch das Prädationsrisiko verursachte Kosten kurzzeitig kompensieren können. In einem Wahlexperiment bevorzugten Grillen Pflanzen ohne Spinnengeruchsstoffe. Infolgedessen wurde an Pflanzen mit Spinnengeruchsstoffen weniger gefressen.
Auch Ameisen sind allgegenwärtige Räuber und können einen starken Einfluss auf Pflanzenfresser (Herbivore) aber auch auf andere Räuber haben. Wenn junge Spinnen mit Ameisengeruchstoffen konfrontiert wurden, stieg ihre Bereitschaft sich über größere Entfernungen auszubreiten. Junge Spinnen nutzen diese passive Ausbreitung über die Luft ("ballooning") um Ameisen zu entkommen und neue Lebensräume zu besiedeln.
In einem Freilandexperiment haben wir die Besiedlung von Pflanzen durch Arthropoden in Abhängigkeit von Spinnengeruchsstoffen untersucht. Dabei haben wir den Fraß an den Blättern und die Tiergemeinschaften erfasst. Vergleichbar zum Pflanzenwahlversuch im Labor wurde an Pflanzen mit Spinnengeruchstoffen weniger gefressen. Zusätzlich konnten wir Veränderungen in den Tiergemeinschaften feststellen: Kleine Spinnen und die Schwarze Gartenameise (Lasius niger) haben Pflanzen mit Spinnengeruchstoffen gemieden. Im Gegensatz dazu stieg die Anzahl der Arbeiterinnen der Roten Gartenameise (Myrmica rubra), möglicherweise um ihre Blattläuse gegen die drohende Gefahr zu verteidigen.
Obwohl Verhaltensänderungen auf Filterpapieren mit Spinnengeruchstoffen selten waren, haben unsere Experimente unter natürlicheren Bedingungen deutliche und weitreichende Reaktionen auf die mögliche Anwesenheit von Spinnen (Risikoeffekte) gezeigt. Unsere Resultate legen nahe, dass Risikoeffekte von Räuber die räumliche Verteilung von Pflanzenfraß verändern. Die Gesamtherbivorie wurde allerdings nicht reduziert, was erwartet wird wenn Räuber Pflanzenfresser töten. Wie stark sich Prädation und Risikoeffekte relativ auf die Beute auswirken ist entscheidend für den Einfluss von Räuber auf niedrigere Nahrungsebenen.
To assess the effect of organic compounds on the aquatic environment, organisms are typically exposed to toxicant solutions and the adverse effects observed are linked to the concentration in the surrounding media. As compounds generally need to be taken up into the organism and distributed to the respective target sites for the induction of effects, the internal exposure is postulated to best represent the observed effects.
The aim of this work is to contribute to an improved effect assessment of organic compounds by describing experimental and modelling methods to obtain information on the internal exposure of contaminants in organisms.
Chapter 2 details a protocol for the determination of bioconcentration parameter for uptake (k1) and elimination (k2) of organic compounds in zebrafish (Danio rerio) eggs. This enables the simulation of the internal exposure in zebrafish eggs from an ambient exposure concentration over time. The accumulated contaminant amount in zebrafish eggs was also determined, using a biomimetic extraction method. Different bioconc-entration estimation models for the determination of internal steady-state concentrat-ion of pharmaceutical compounds in fish to an environmental exposure are presented in Chapter 3. Bioconcentration factors were estimated from the compounds octanol: water partition coefficient (KOW) to determine the internal exposure to an ambient concentration.
To assess the integral bioavailable fraction from the water and sediment phase of environmental contaminants for rooted aquatic plants, the internal exposure in river-living Myriophyllum aquaticum plants were determined over time, presented in Chapter 4. The plants were collected at different time points, with the accumulated organic contaminants determined using a liquid extraction method.
In Chapter 5 a protocol was established to enable the non-invasive observation of effects in M. aquaticum plants exposed to contaminated sediments over time. Since the toxicant effects are a result of all uptake and distribution processes to the target site and the toxico-dynamic process leading to an observed effect during static exposure, information on the internal exposure could thus be gained from the temporal effect expression.rn
In the present study the flora and vegetation of Kakamega Forest, an East African rainforest in Western Kenya, was investigated. Kakamega Forest is highly degraded and fragmented and is an ideal model to study the anthropogenic influence on the forest inventory. The main focus was to analyse the influence of human impact on the vascular plant species composition. During five field phases in the years 2001 to 2004 a total of 19 study sites scattered over the whole forest including all fragments were investigated regarding forest structure, species composition and plant communities. The different forest sites were analysed by three different methods, phytosociological relevés, line-transect and with the variable-area transect method. The forest survey revealed about 400 taxa of vascular plant species, among them 112 trees, 62 shrubs, 58 climbers and 114 herbs. Several species are restricted to this forest in Kenya, but only one endemic species, the herb Commelina albiflora, could be discovered. About 15 species were recorded as new for Kenya and probably at least one species is new to science. Kakamega Forest is a unique mixture of Guineo-Congolian and Afromontane floral elements. About one half of the vascular plant species has its origin in the lowland forests of the Congo basin and one third originates from Afromontane habitats. The present study represents the first description of plant communities of Kakamega Forest. An analysis of different forest sites and plantations resulted in 17 different vegetation units. For the mature forest sites eleven plant communities were described. The young succession stage consists of two plant communities. Since the disturbance history and the age of the different plant communities could be estimated, their chronology was also described. An exception are the study sites within the plantations and afforested sites. The four defined vegetation units were not described as plant communities, because they are highly affected by man and do not belong to the natural succession of Kakamega Forest. Nevertheless, the regeneration potential of such forests was investigated. Due to the different succession stages the changing species composition along a disturbance gradient could be analysed. Most of Kakamega Forest consists of middle-aged secondary forest often surrounded by very young secondary forest. A true primary rainforest could not be found due the massive influence by over-exploitation. In all parts of the forest the anthropogenic influence could be observed. The forest develops towards a climax stage, but a 2 Abstract comparison with former surveys shows that the regeneration is much slower than expected. Human impact has to be avoided to allow the forest to develop into a primary-like rainforest. But several climax tree species might be missing anyway, because after the broad logging activities in the past there are not enough seed trees remaining. Species richness was highest in disturbed forest sites. A mixture of pioneer, climax and bushland species could be recorded there. Therefore, a high species richness is not a suitable indicator for forest quality. The proportion of climax species typical for Kakamega Forest would be a better measure. Compared to the main forest block the forest fragments do not lack in diversity as expected due to fragmentation processes. Instead, the only near primary forest could be recorded in Kisere, a northern fragment. The high amount of climax species and the more or less undisturbed forest structure is a result of the strict protection by the Kenya Wildlife Service and due to low logging activities. Differences in species composition between the studied forest sites are either a result of the different logging history or management regime rather than due to different edaphic or climatic conditions.
Studies have shown that runoff and spray-drift are important sources of nonpoint-source pesticide pollution of surface waters. Owing to this, public concern over the presence of pesticides in surface and ground water has resulted in intensive scientific efforts to find economical, yet environmentally sound solutions to the problem. The primary objective of this research was to assess the effectiveness of vegetated aquatic systems in providing buffering between natural aquatic ecosystems and agricultural landscape following insecticide associated runoff and spray-drift events. The first set of studies were implemented using vegetated agricultural ditches, one in Mississippi, USA, using pyrethroids (bifenthrin, lambda-cyhalothrin) under simulated runoff conditions and the other in the Western Cape, South Africa using the organophosphate insecticide, azinphos-methyl (AZP), under natural runoff and spray-drift conditions. The second set of studies were implemented using constructed wetlands, one in the Western Cape using AZP under natural spray-drift conditions and the other in Mississippi, USA using the organophosphate MeP under simulated runoff conditions. Results from the Mississippi-ditch study indicated that ditch lengths of less than 300 m would be sufficient to mitigate bifenthrin and lambda-cyhalothrin. In addition, data from mass balance calculations determined that the ditch plants were the major sink (generally > 90%) and/or sorption site for the rapid dissipation of the above pyrethroids from the water column. Similarly, results from the ditch study in South Africa showed that a 180 m vegetated system was effective in mitigating AZP after natural spray drift and low flow runoff events. Analytical results from the first wetland study show that the vegetated wetland was more effective than the non-vegetated wetland in reducing loadings of MeP. Mass balance calculations indicated approximately 90% of MeP mass was associated with the plant compartment. Ninety-six hours after the contamination, a significant negative acute effect of contamination on abundances was found in 8 out of the 15 macroinvertebrate species in both wetland systems. Even with these toxic effects, the overall reaction of macroinvertebrates clearly demonstrated that the impact of MeP in the vegetated wetland was considerably lower than in the non-vegetated wetland. Results from the constructed wetland study in South Africa revealed that concentrations of AZP at the inlet of the 134 m wetland system were reduced by 90% at the outlet. Overall, results from all of the studies in this thesis indicate that the presence of the plant compartment was essential for the effective mitigation of insecticide contamination introduced after both simulated and natural runoff or spray-drift events. Finally, both the vegetated agricultural drainage ditch and vegetated constructed wetland systems studied would be effective in mitigating pesticide loadings introduced from either runoff or spray-drift, in turn lowering or eliminating potential pesticide associated toxic effects in receiving aquatic ecosystems. Data produced in this research provide important information to reduce insecticide risk in exposure assessment scenarios. It should be noted that incorporating these types of best management practices (BMPs) will decrease the risk of acute toxicity, but chronic exposure may still be an apparent overall risk.
Foliicolous lichens are one of the most abundant epiphytes in tropical rainforests and one of the few groups of organisms that characterize these forests. Tropical rainforests are increasingly affected by anthropogenic disturbance resulting in forest destruction and degradation. However, not much is known on the effects of anthropogenic disturbance on the diversity of foliicolous lichens. Understanding such effects is crucial for the development of appropriate measures for the conservation of such organisms. In this study, foliicolous lichens diversity was investigated in three tropical rainforests in East Africa. Godere Forest in Southwest Ethiopia is a transitional rainforest with a mixture of Afromontane and Guineo-Congolian species. The forest is secondary and has been affected by shifting cultivation, semi-forest coffee management and commercial coffee plantation. Budongo Forest in West Uganda is a Guineo-Congolian rainforest consisting of primary and secondary forests. Kakamega Forest in western Kenya is a transitional rainforest with a mixture of Guineo-Congolian and Afromontane species. The forest is a mosaic of near-primary forest, secondary forests of different seral stages, grasslands, plantations, and natural glades.